Philosophical Foundations of Education and Curriculum Design Planning

Philosophical Foundations

“Our philosophy of education influences, and to a large extent determines, our educational decisions, choices, and alternatives” (Ornstein,1990/1991) . Ornstein (1990/1991) further states that “it helps them answer what are the school's purpose, what subjects are of value, how students learn, and what methods and materials to use”.

Perennialism

• Realism is its philosophical base

• It is a traditional philosophy and focuses on the past

• “The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change” (Philosophical Perspectives in Education)

• The instructional objective is to “educate the rational person” (Ornstein,1990/1991)

• Focus of curriculum is the traditional subjects and the search for truth

• Teacher leads students to rational thinking by getting them to question, debate, and uncover truths.

• “Teachers are seen as subject matter specialists who impart their knowledge to their students” (Hill,1994).

Essentialism

• Idealism and Realism are its philosophical base

• “Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to students in a systematic, disciplined way” (Philosophical Perspectives in Education)

• It is a traditional philosophy and focuses on the past

• The instructional objective is to “promote the intellectual growth of the individual”(Ornstein,1990/1991)

• Subject content and skills can be mastered.

• The teacher is the expert and passes knowledge on to the students.

• “The teacher brings together the world of ideas and the world outside of the classroom, understands stages of development and learning, plans activities accordingly, and is a role model representing the ideal adult” (Hill,1994)

• Curriculum focus is on essential subjects and essential skills (the 3 Rs).

Progressivism

• Education is based on individuals' experiences in the world (Hill, 1994)

• The teacher is the facilitator or "group leader" by using experiments, projects, and problem-solving approaches (Hill, 1994)

• Students learn by doing.

• Emphasis on the development of attitude and particularly the desire for students to be motivated to keep learning.

• Interdisciplinary subject matter (Ornstein, 1990/1991)

Reconstructionism

• Planned and purposeful in producing social and political change.

• Skills and knowledge is used to produce "reflective and critical sociocultural members" (Hill, 1994).

• Learning is active

• Teacher acts as a "project director and research leader" (Ornstein, 1990/1991).

• Emphasis on social sciences including social, economic, and political problems.

• Technology should be used to improve human and global conditions (Hall, 1994).

Curriculum Design

Subject Centred

• Curriculum is organized into different subjects or disciplines.

• The content is preplanned and well defined

• Materials are standard and traditional

• “Subject-centered designs are by far the most popular and widely used. Knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts of the curriculum” (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2013)

• Curriculum is designed to introduce individuals to essential knowledge

Learner Centred

• Student over subject matter is the focus

• Knowledge as an "outgrowth of personal experience" (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2013)

• Lots of choice given and mistakes are seen as part of the learning process (growth mindset)

• Child-centered design – students must be active in their learning environment and teaching should suit a child's developmental level. Subjects are integrated to help students solve problems.

• Experience-centered design - Curriculum is continually changing in response to children's growth and development.

• Romantic design – Students find their true selves by looking to their own nature (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2013). This design is influenced by Freire who professed that education should "enlighten the masses about their oppression, prompt them to feel dissatisfied with their condition, and give them the competencies necessary for correcting the identified inequities" (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2013, p.167).

• Humanistic design – Values questioning which fosters deep thinking and learning. There is a deep relationship between learning and feeling and self-actualization is the end goal.

Problem/Society-Centred

• Real-life problems are examined to address the needs of the community.

• Curriculum is planned before student arrival, but is open to change.

• Life-situations design – Curriculum is organized around life situations, integrates subjects, and is relevant to students.

• Reconstructionist design – Schools should help students develop into "social beings dedicated to the common good" (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2013, p.171).

The Relationship of Each Conception to the Different Philosophies and Curriculum Designs

Academia

Perennialism and Essentialism Philosophies

Subject Centred Curriculum Design

Academia conception comes from the traditional philosophies of Perennialism and Essentialism. Educators who follow these philosophies believe the “education is viewed as instruction” (Ornstein, 1991). It is the teacher’s job to fill the student’s mind with facts and knowledge. Teachers are the authorities on subjects. Ornstein (1991) suggests that there is an emphasis on cognitive learning. “Teachers are seen as subject matter specialists who impart their knowledge to their students” (Hill, 1994).

Perennialism and Essentialism philosophies fits into Subject-Centered curriculum design. Ornstein and Hunkins (2013) states that “Subject-centered designs are by far the most popular and widely used. Knowledge and content are well accepted as integral parts of the curriculum”. This curriculum is organized into different subjects or disciplines. Materials for teaching subjects are standard and traditional (Sowell, 2005). Sowell (2005) also writes that these “designs typically use one of these approaches: Single subject, correlated subjects, or broad-fields subjects, and curriculum is usually developed using the outcomes approach”.

Technology/ Systematic /Cognitive

Essentialism Philosophy

Subject Centred & Technology Curriculum Design

The Technology curriculum conception comes from the traditional philosophy of Essentialism. Educators who follow this philosophies believe that the educational objective is to “promote the intellectual growth of the individual”(Ornstein, 1991).

Idealism, which is one of Essentialism’s philosophical bases, is related because it provides “depth of thought, encourage[s] conceptualization, and lead[s] to inner conviction” (Hill, 1994). Realism, which is another one of the Essentialism’s philosophical bases, also is related because knowledge is considered to be fixed truths. “Facts and information about the external world are of great importance in a realistic education” (Hill, 1994).

Essentialism philosophies fits into Subject-Centered curriculum design because curriculum is organized into different subjects or disciplines. Sowell (2005) also provides additional curriculum designs. The Technology curriculum conception fits into Technology as Curriculum. She states that “the technology as curriculum design features explicit, behaviorally stated objectives toward which learners are directed through a carefully sequenced set of activities, and it usually uses subject matter as its source of content”(Sowell, 2005) .

Individual/Learner Centred

Progressivism/Idealism Philosophy

Learner Centred Curriculum Design

One of Eisner’s conceptions of curriculum is the curriculum for self-actualization and consummatory experiences (Eisner and Vallance, 1974). Others have termed the concept as humanistic or learner-centered. Consistent in these, however, are the philosophical values of progressivism and idealism. Idealism, influenced by philosophers like Descartes, Berkeley, Kant, Hegel, and Royce, asserts that character development and self-realization are of utmost importance. Holistic learning through active participation of students and conceptual thinking develop deeper learning and a broader understanding of the world (Hill, 1994). Progressivism also encourages learning through individual experiences. Both idealism and progressivism profess that education provides the content and tools for students to make discoveries on their own which provides personal satisfaction for individual learners (Eisner and Vallance, 1974).

The learner-centred curriculum design approach also see students over subject matter as the program’s focus (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1991). Knowledge is seen as “an outgrowth of personal experience” and teaching should be suited to children’s’ developmental level (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1991). Questions foster learning and deep thinking, and mistakes are seen as opportunities to grow and learn.

Social Reconstruction

Reconstructionism & Pragmatic Philosophy

Problem-Centred Curriculum Design

The concept of curriculum for social reconstruction emphasizes curriculum content within the larger social context. It places societal needs above individual ones, and sees schools as agents for social change (Eisner and Vallance, 1974). Reconstructionism, coinciding with this view, is a philosophy of education that is planned and purposeful to produce social and political change. Skills and knowledge is used to produce "reflective and critical sociocultural members" (Hill, 1994). Technology, for example, should be used to improve human and global conditions and teachers need to plan to be part of the decision-making processes in curriculum implementation. Pragmatic philosophy may also be relevant to social reconstructivism as it sees how each individual in a democracy has an opportunity to alter the structure of society.

The problem-centred curriculum design seems to coincide with both reconstructivism and pragmatism. This educational structure uses real-life problems to address needs in a community, and curriculum extends beyond subject boundaries in order to apply problem-solving procedures (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1991). Schools are venues to help students develop into social beings to help the common good and promote social, political, and economic development.

References

Eisner, E., & Vallance, E. (Eds.). (1974). Five conceptions of the curriculum: Their roots and implications for curriculum planning. In E. Eisner & E. Vallance (Eds.), Conflicting conceptions of curriculum (pp. 1-18). Berkeley, CA: McCutchan Publishing.

Hill, A. M. (1994). Perspectives on philosophical shifts in vocational education: From realism to pragmatism and reconstructionism. Journal of Vocational and Technical Education, 10(2), 37-45.

Ornstein, A. C. (1990/1991). Philosophy as a basis for curriculum decisions. The High School Journal, 74, 102-109.

Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2013). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (6thed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Read Chapter 6, pp. 149-173.

Philosophical Perspectives in Education (n.d.). Retrieved July 17, 2017, from https://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP3.html

Sowell, E. J. (2005). Curriculum: An integrative introduction (3rd ed., pp. 52-54, 55-61, 81-85,103-106). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.